Pharmacological Insights into Zingiber officinale var. rubrum (red ginger): A review of bioactive compounds and medicinal applications

Abstract

Red ginger (Zingiber officinale var. rubrum Theilade), commonly known as red ginger or jahe merah, is a distinct variety within the Zingiberaceae family, characterised by its crimson rhizome, elevated essential oil content
(2.58–3.90% v/w), and a rich profile of bioactive compounds including gingerols, shogaols, paradols, and variety- specific anthocyanins. This review synthesizes current evidence on the taxonomy, distribution, morphology, ethnopharmacology, nutritional composition, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of Z. officinale var. rubrum. Long established in the Indonesian Jamu tradition, Ayurveda, and Traditional Chinese Medicine, red ginger has been used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatic pain, fever, and reproductive conditions. Contemporary pharmacological studies have validated these uses, demonstrating antioxidant (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 activation), anti-inflammatory (cyclooxygenase-2/nuclear factor kappa B/mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibition), thrombolytic, antiviral, anthelmintic, gastroprotective (including Helicobacter pylori inhibition), and analgesic activities with supporting clinical evidence in dysmenorrhea and osteoarthritis. Preclinical toxicology classifies extracts as practically non-toxic (lethal dose 50% >5,000 mg/kg; World Health Organization Category 5) with a negative genotoxicity profile. Key challenges include a limited clinical trial base, incomplete pharmacokinetic data, and phytochemical variability across sources. Future priorities include well-powered randomised controlled trials, phytochemical standardization, and
improved delivery systems to enhance bioavailability. Overall, Z. officinale var. rubrum represents a promising phytomedicinal resource with significant translational potential across inflammatory, infectious, and pain-related therapeutic areas.